That Temperamental Thyroid Gland

Source for Figure 29 Cancer in Patients Treated for Hyperthyroidism: Dobyns, B.M., Sheline, G.E., Workman, J.B., Tompkins, E.A., McConahey, W.M. and Becker, D.V. Malignant and benign neoplasms of the thyroid in patients treated for hyperthyroidism: A report of the cooperative thyrotoxicosis therapy follow-up study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinological Metabolism, 38:976, 1974.

Most of our organs - like our hearts and kidneys - either work or they don't. Our thyroid gland, however, either can refuse to work hard enough (hypothyroidism), or can put out too many hormones (hyperthyroidism) - either of which can make life miserable. Those who are the victims of excessive thyroxin have several choices to reduce production of this hormone: whacking away at the thyroid with a scalpel, drugging it into submission, or introducing radioactive iodine 131 into the body, which rushes directly to the gland and essentially wounds it, thus decreasing its activity. [Iodine 131 is also used both for diagnosis of thyroid function and, in the case of a malignancy, "ablating" or "burning up" the organ. The latter procedure has made thyroid cancer probably the most successfully treatable of all malignancies.]

A study by B.M. Dobyns, et al. observed the prevalence of thyroid cancer incidence in 35,000 hyperthyroid patients out to twenty years after treatment. Some 1,200 of these were treated with drugs, with another 12,000 having undergone surgical treatment. The majority, about 22,000, were subjected to very high doses of 131I - on the order of 50,000 mrem or 50 cSv. One would logically expect rampant cancer in these individuals on the basis of the LNT. But it's (another) miracle! As Figure 29 indicates, not only did radiation not result in a high malignancy rate, but it seems to have had a hormetic aftermath. Gee, perhaps this can be explained by the "healthy patient effect."

Take Two Cobalt 60s & Call Me in the Morning

If we really believed in the LNT, we would have to conclude that routine use of X-rays for medical purposes would cause 100,000 deaths each year. - Richard North, Alpha, 1997

Radiation and cancer are certainly strange bedfellows.

On the one hand there is a great deal of misplaced concern that the almost infinitesimally small emissions from nuclear power plants will cause widespread cancer and induce Farmer Jones's cow to give birth to two-headed calves. Yet when Farmer Jones contracts cancer (no doubt as a result of the power plant), one of the primary treatments is to destroy the cancer cells (which are unusually susceptible to radiation) with X-ray treatments or by implantation of radioactive "seeds" in the cancerous organ. And when Mrs. Farmer Jones has a hyperactive thyroid, she ingests enough iodine 131 to give her body 200 times the radiation dose - in about three weeks - that she receives over her lifetime from the natural background, to to mention the gamma radiation given to her good farmer husband from being next to him in bed. Furthermore, when little Billy Jones is found to have a fatal, inoperative brain tumor, the least invasive treatment is the "gamma knife" - a method of focusing 201 small gamma sources, which, individually, are too weak to cause any harm to anyone but the most fervent anti-nuke. Yet when they are concentrated on the offending growth together they have the power to vaporize it... and Billy goes home that afternoon completely cured. Is that a miracle or what?

However, we are not going to discuss this type of radiation therapy, since it involves the transfer of considerable amounts of energy to tissues - particularly tumors or cancers - in an attempt to destroy them or reduce their functionality. Instead, we will be concerned about the effects of comparatively tiny amounts of radiation whose purpose is to provoke the immune system into stepping up its action on the cellular level.

You may note in this chapter that virtually all of the current experimental activity mentioned is occurring in Japan, where the work of Dr. Luckey is revered - since, I suspect, it explains so much of what is happening to bomb survivors. But he Japanese have taken the matter much further, including hormetic augmentation of high-level therapies and measurement of the physiological reactions to radiation - including one that gives credence to an unusual treatment for arthritis that dates back to Roman times.

The Concept of Half-Life

When an atom of a radioactive isotope decays, two things happen. First, energy is given off from the conversion of mass to energy according to Einstein's famous formula, E = mc2. (The newly formed atom and any emitted particles are always lighter than the original atom - and it is this difference in mass that is converted to energy.) Simultaneously the original element is transmuted to an element with a lower atomic number. The secondary element is called the daughter (or progeny) of the first; it can be either a stable isotope or can itself be radioactive and go through a radioactive decay. Eventually, however, the original element decays to a stable form, and no more energy is given off.

One can deduce from this that a radioactive element has a finite amount of energy to emit. Either it emits this energy very rapidly - in which case the radiation is intense and short-lived - or slowly, which would logically result in a relatively low radiation output. You can't have it both ways - a serious problem in nuclear medicine, as some of the intensely emitting therapeutic isotopes cannot be stored for more than a day.

Half-life is the time in which half the initial number of radioactive atoms decay.

If you stop to think about this phenomena, it's difficult not to have some kind of religious experience. Just think: In a tiny piece of (for example) uranium, one atom may have an internal "clock" that commands it to disintegrate in a second, while an adjacent atom in the same small sample will not decay for 13,500,000,000 years. How do they know then to "do their thing?" It's a problem that science may never solve.

Iodine 131 (used in thyroid diagnosis and ablation) has a half-life of about eight days. Thus if we started with a gram of 131I, after eight days and fifty-seven minutes we would have only a half-gram with the other half having been transmuted to stable tellurium. In another eight days we would have only one-fourth. After eighty days - ten half-lives - there is less than 1/1000 of the original specimen; beyond thirty half-lives, the isotope is considered to have disappeared. With its relatively short half-life, 131I is an intensely radioactive isotope.

Let's look for a moment at one of the most ubiquitous radioactive isotopes around: 238U, the primary uranium isotope making up 99.3% of the element's existence on Earth. [There are approximately 5,000 pounds of uranium in a volume of average soil one square mile by one foot deep.] It has a half-life of 4.5 billion years - approximately the same time estimated for Earth's age. Uranium takes 207,000,000,000 times as long to decay as 131I - with an inverse (longer time, less radiation) emission rate in approximately that proportion. Obviously it is a weak sister when it comes to being radioactive - which is fortunate for us or it would all be gone.

So, just in case I haven't made this clear, let me emphasize the following:

Short half-life = intense emitter, but gone after a short time

Long half-life = low activity and inherently not dangerous

Those who oppose nuclear technology want us to believe "Long half-life = dangerous," but it's just not true.

Understanding the concept of half-life and its relationship to intensity makes one realize that Barry Commoner - when he invokes references to a "nuclear priesthood watching over wastes for thousands of years" - is either terribly ignorant himself or is hoping that we are.